Peninsular War

[Yosy]

The Peninsula War (1808-1814) was a major conflict during the Napoleonic Wars. The war was fought in the Iberian Peninsula between Spain, Portugal and the British against the French.

Progress of the War

In November 1807 the Emperor Napoleon sent an army into Spain under Marshal Junot tasked with invading Portugal, after Portugal had refused to join the Continental System; Lisbon was captured on December 1. The skilfull escape in November, 29 1807 of the Portuguese dynasty and 15,000 people from the Administration and the Court carried by the Fleet enabled D.João VI to continue to rule over its overseas possessions, including Brazil.

Napoleon then began sending troops into the Peninsula; Pamplona and Barcelona were seized in February 1808. A Spanish coup forced Charles IV from his throne and replaced him with his son Ferdinand VII. Napoleon removed the royals to Bayonne and forced them to abdicate (May 5), giving the throne to his brother Joseph. When Joseph tried to enforce his rule in Spain he provoked a popular uprising. Citizens of Madrid rose up in rebellion against French occupation on May 2, 1808 but the revolt was crushed.

Until this time, British military operations on mainland Europe had been marked by bungling, half-measures and a series of humiliating defeats. Britain had been forced to withdraw from Europe. But with the rising in Portugal and Spain the British were prepared to commit substantial forces once again. In August, 1808 the first British forces landed in Portugal under the command of then General Sir Arthur Wellesley (the Duke of Wellington).

The Spanish army had won a surprising victory over the army of Pierre Dupont at Bailén (May 19-May 21). Wellesley defeated forces under the command of Delaborde at Roliça on August 17 while the Portuguese Observation Army of Bernardim contained Loison. On August 21 the Anglo-Portuguese were strongly engaged at the Battle of Vimeiro by French forces under the command of Junot. Wellesley's careful management, strong leadership and sound tactics repulsed the dynamic French and the Allies held their line. Despite his victory, Wellesley was replaced as commander by Harry Burrard and Hew Dalrymple. These victories led to the French withdrawing from Portugal under the controversial Convention of Sintra in August, 1808. The British commanders were ordered back to England for the inquiry into Sintra leaving Sir John Moore to head the 30,000 strong British force.

The Anglo-Portugueses and Spanish victories combined to provoke Napoleon himself to lead 200,000 men into the Peninsula. The British attacked near Burgos but were soon forced into a long retreat chased by the French and punctuated by battles at Sahagun, Benavente and Cacobelos, ending in an evacuation from La Coruña in January, 1809, Moore being killed while directing the defence of the town. Satisfied and after only little more than two months in Spain, Napoleon handed command over to Marshal Soult and returned to France.

On March Soult initiated the second invasion of Portugal, through the northern corridor. Repulsed in the Minho river by Portuguese milicias, he captured successively Chaves, Braga and, on 29 March 1809, Porto. Yet,the resistance of Silveira in Amarante and other northern cities isolated Soult in Oporto and he embarked upon a gamble of becoming king of North Portugal or evacuate the country.

Meanwhile, Napoleon's victories had broken the Spanish armies, but had also forced the Spanish to begin the guerilla warfare than would lead to the downfall of the French in Spain.

Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command the Anglo-Portuguese forces. He strenghtened his British army with Portuguese regiments - meanwhile organized by the Governors of the realm and adapted by Beresford to the British way of campaigning - and defeated Soult at Grijo and then at Oporto (May 12). All other northern cities were captured by Silveira.

Leaving the Portuguese to take care of their newly-won territory, Wellesley advanced into Spain to join up with the Spanish army of Gregorio de la Cuesta. The combined Allied force clashed with a army led by King Joseph at Talavera (July 27-July 28), the Allies won a costly victory which left them precariously exposed and soon they had to retreat westwards. Wellesley was made a Viscount for his victory at Talavera. Later that year Spanish armies were badly mauled at Ocaña and at Alba de Tormes.

After his most distressing experience of collaboration with the Spaniards, and fearing a new French attack, Wellesley took the decision to strengthen Portugal's defences. He took a plan from Major Neves Costa and ordered the construction of a strong military wall, along key roads and of a series of trenches and earthworks (the Lines of Torres Vedras) to protect Lisbon.

The French reinvaded Portugal in July 1810 with an army of around 60,000 led by Marshal Masséna. The first significant clash was at the Coa. Later on, Masséna took "the worst route in Portugal" and at Buçaco on September 27, suffered a big check but the Allies were soon forced to retreat to the Lines. The fortifications were so impressive that after a small attack at Sobral on October 14 the conflict fell into stalemate. As Charles Oman wrote "in that misty October 14 morning, at Sobral, the Napoleonic empire attained its highest watermark" Then it ebbed. The French withdrew from the Lines and were forced to await reinforcements.

The Allies were reinforced by the arrival of fresh British troops in early 1811 and began a new offensive. A French force was beaten at Barrosa on March 5 to relieve Cadiz, and Massena was forced to withdraw from Portugal after a stalemate at Fuentes de Oñoro (May 3-May 5). Massena had lost 25,000 men in the fighting in Portugal and he was replaced by Auguste Marmont. The new commander directed Soult to the north to protect Badajoz. The force of Soult was intercepted by an Anglo-Portuese and Spanish army led by the Portuguese Army marshal William Beresford at Albuera (May 16) and after a bloody battle the French were forced to retreat.

The war then fell into a temporary lull, the numerically superior French unable to find an advantage and under increasing pressure from Spanish guerilla activity. The French had upwards of 350,000 soldiers in L'Armée de l'Espagne, but the vast majority, over 200,000, were deployed to protect the French lines of supply rather than as substantial fighting units.

Wellesley renewed the Allied advance into Spain just after New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the fortified towns of Ciudad Rodrigo on January 19 and Badajoz, after a costly assault, on April 6. Both towns were pillaged by the troops. The Allied army took Salamanca on June 17 as Marmont approached. The two forces finally met on July 22 and the Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat to the French. Marshall Beresford was severely wounded. As the French regrouped, the Anglo-Portuguese entered Madrid on August 6 and advanced onwards towards Burgos before retreating all the way back to Portugal.

The French hopes of recovery were stricken by Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. He had taken 30,000 soldiers from the hard-pressed Armée de l'Espagne. But starved of reinforcements and replacements the French position became increasingly unsustainable as the Allies renewed the offensive in May, 1813.

It was grand strategy, as Wellington planned to move his supply base from Lisboa to San Sebastian.

The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in June and seized Burgos, then they outflanked the army commanded by Joseph forcing him into the Zadorra river valley. At the Battle of Vitoria (June 21) the 65.000 men of Joseph were routed. The Allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July. Soult was given command of the French forces and began a counter-offensive, dealing the Allied generals two sharp defeats at Maya and at Roncesvalles. Yet, he was severely repulsed by the Anglo-Portuguese and losed momentum and finally fled after the Allied victory at Sorauren (July 28 and 30). On October 7, after Wellington received news from the reopening of hostilities em Germany, the Allies finally crossed into France, fording the Bidassoa river.

The Peninsula war went on through the Allied victories of Vera, Nivelle, near Bayonne (December 10-14), Orthez (February 27, 1814) and Toulouse (April 10). This last one was after Napoleon's abdication.

The Guerrilla War

During the war the British gave aid to Portuguese Milicia Levies and Spanish guerrillas who tied down thousands of French troops. The British gave this aid because it cost them much less than it would have done to equip British soldiers to face the French troops in conventional warfare. This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and is the origin of the word guerrilla in the English language.

Consequences in Portugal

The Peninsular War signified the traumatic entry of Portugal into contemporary age. The transference of the Royal Court to Rio de Janeiro, initiated the process of Brasil's state-buiding which, in due time became independent. The skilfull evacuation by the Portuguese Fleet of more than 15,000 people from the Court, Administration and Army was a bonus for Brasil and a blessing in disguise for Portugal. It liberated the energies of the country. The Governors of Portugal nominated by the absent king had a scant impact on account of successive French invasions and British occupation. Yet , the role of the War Minister Miguel Pereira Forjaz was unique. With the Portuguese Staff, he managed to build a regular army of 55,000 men, some more 50,000 national guard - "milicias" - and a variable number of home guard -"ordenanças" - perhaps more than 100,000. The impact of a nation at arms was the equivalent of French revolution as a new class, tried, disciplined and informed by the experience of war against the French Empire, was enabled to rebuild the Portuguese liberal institutions from 1820 onwards.

Consequences in Spain

The new king was cheered initially by Spanish afrancesados (Frenchified), who believed that collaborating with France would bring modernization and liberty. An example was the abolition of the Spanish Inquisition. However, the conduct of the French army led many to disappointment. The remaining ones exiled to France following French troops. The painter Francisco de Goya was one of these afrancesados, but soon changed his mind and created somber pictures of the disasters of war.

In the independence side, both traditionalists and liberals were found. After the war, they would clash in the Carlist Wars. Independent Cortes were summoned in Cádiz acting on behalf of king Ferdinand, "the Desired one", and coordinating the provincial Juntas. The liberal Cortes approved the first Spanish Constitution on March 19, 1812. In Spanish America, the Juntas were formed by Creoles, instead of the Spain-born public officers. This experience of self-government led the later Libertadores to promote the independence of the colonies.

The French troops seized many of the extensive properties of the Catholic Church. Churches and convents were used as stables or barracks and artworks were sent to France. The Spanish cultural heritage took a serious hit.

Role of Intelligence

Intelligence played a large part in the successful prosecution of the war by the British after 1810. Spanish and Portuguese guerrillas were asked to capture messages from French couriers. From 1811 onwards, these dispatches were often either partially or wholly enciphered. George Scovell of Wellington's General Staff was given the job of deciphering them. At first the ciphers used were fairly simple and he received help from other members of the General Staff. However beginning in 1812, a much stronger cipher originally devised for diplomatic messages, came into use and Scovell was left to work on this himself. He steadily broke it, with the result that knowledge of French troop movements and deployments was used to great effect in most of the engagements described above. The French never realised that the code had been broken and continued to use it until their code tables were captured at the battle of Vitoria.

[Benny]

Great post, Yosi. Actually, this is one of my favourite period of the whole Portuguese military history. What were your sources? The Portuguese regulars and their British allies played a major role in defeating the French, brilliantly orchestrated by Wellington, expelling the French invasor from Portugal, through Spain and all the way to Southern France. And let's not forget the amazing Lines of Torres Vedras - the maginot line of the XIX century (only more effective)!

[Para]

Did any one see the TV series called Sharp that was set in this period. On whole the Series is well worth watching.

[Benny]

I'm a big fan of the tv series, but I still prefer the books on which it was based, by Bernard Cornwell.

[ogukuo72]

What continues to amaze me is the scale of casualties in one battle in those days. 25,000 casualties! I read somewhere that there were 53,000 casualties at *****sburg alone.

Things seems so different nowadays, when even a dozen casualties would lead to hail and cry.

[Yosy]

Originally Posted by Benny

Great post, Yosi. Actually, this is one of my favourite period of the whole Portuguese military history. What were your sources? The Portuguese regulars and their British allies played a major role in defeating the French, brilliantly orchestrated by Wellington, expelling the French invasor from Portugal, through Spain and all the way to Southern France. And let's not forget the amazing Lines of Torres Vedras - the maginot line of the XIX century (only more effective)!

www.wikipedia.org

[moley102]

A good book on the war, written by a British historian (which makes it even better as most of these accounts seem to merely recite a list of Wellington's victories) is "The Peninsular War" by Esdaile. Looks at the social, economic and political situations in Spain and Portugal before the fighting started, and examines these factors throughout, as well as havign thourough battle accounts and campaign history. Definitely a good one to look up if you're interested.

[Benny]

Thanks, moley. It is indeed a great book (I bought it 3-4 months ago), interesting to read and very detailled. However, I noticed that Esdaille pays more attention to the effects of war in Spain, its people and its internal politics, than to the Portuguese role. Fortunately, the Portuguese military historians have now turned their attention to these matters, and some good books, written from our point of view and according to our sources, are beggining to come out too. I hope that the exceptional work of Esdaille serves as their model.

[Loco]

Originally Posted by Benny

The Portuguese regulars and their British allies played a major role in defeating the French, brilliantly orchestrated by Wellington, expelling the French invasor from Portugal, through Spain and all the way to Southern France. And let's not forget the amazing Lines of Torres Vedras - the maginot line of the XIX century (only more effective)!

That´s fantastic. I´m sure that Portugal won the last european championship of football and England is still the main empire of the world, like in the time of queen Vicky, nobody realised of that but it´s a good kept secret.
I´m amazed that spaniards were liberated thanks to english and portugueses. It´s shure that little details aren´t important in that war, like that more than the half of french soldiers killed in action in that war(about 400.000 thousand) were killed by spanish guerrilleros, the frenchs killed by spanish regular army have their own yield, or that the war began only because the spanish people declared by themselves, against the willing of our own kings, the war against the frenchs and it was only then when english saw the only chance to warring french in european soil, in friendly soil. It must be an insignificant detail too that the french army suffered its first defeat in Napoleon era in spanish soil as early as in july of 1808 at the hands of a spanish army, no portugueses or english soldiers there, or may be there were portugueses there, but like a secret force.
It was a pity that spaniards didn´t have the maginot line of XIX century nor they had the chance to evacute their soldiers far long when they faced superior french forces, like the case of John Moore hurrying back to sweet England or Welllington behind the walls of Torres Vedras at the beginning of every winter. Spaniards only could fight alone 365 days a years. Better alone that with bad friends.
Bon Nadal, Merry Christsmas to our liberators. :P

[Benny]

I don't know if you read Esdaille's book, but what I meant is that a significant part of his work is dedicated to the internal affairs of the spanish juntas, its corruption, rivalries and the general ineffectiveness of the spanish politicians that one almost forgets that the french armies were really beaten in the field, in regular battles, by regular anglo-portuguese armies, and through the brilliant generalship of Wellington. Esdaille and Wellington consider very poor the behaviour of the spanish army and of most of its generals, but it's undeniable that the guerrillas where fundamental in the role of attacking the lines of communications, isolated small garrisons, etc. But let's not forget that major french held fortresses and whole french armies where taken or beaten in the old fashioned way, on the battlefield, by regular armies. The spanish first defeated the french in Bailén, in 1808, but that didn't put an end to french occupation and attrocities. Wellington did, in spite of the spanish authorities incompetence, corruption and lack of enthusiasm. There were no Lines of Torres Vedras simply because the spanish gave too much confidence to the french, who they invited to their own country to be theyr allies in conquering Portugal (of course you needed allies to such a difficult mission). However, fate played a trick on the spanish regime and the french became an occupying force. As always, the spanish (and portuguese) civilians payed the heavyest price, with hundreds of thousand of dead.
Wellington also said "I do not expect much from the exertions of the spanish... They cry viva and are very fond of us, but they are in general the most incapable of all nations that I have known, the most vain and at the same time the most ignorant... I am afraid that the utmost we can hope for is to teach them how to avoid being beat".
A for the european championship, we didn't won. We lost twice againt the Greeks... But at least we beat the spanish

[Benny]

Hey loco, I just found one of your quotes, posted last year: "As usual always there´s a portuguese flying around like the flys on the ****". You spoke the truth, my friend... There is a proud Portuguese fly and it has landed, many centurys ago, just beside your country.
Feliz Navidad

[Yosy]

Originally Posted by Benny

There were no Lines of Torres Vedras simply because the spanish gave too much confidence to the french, who they invited to their own country to be theyr allies in conquering Portugal (of course you needed allies to such a difficult mission).

I don't agree. If Spain wanted to invade Portugal they could. Portugal is undefensible, unless you count the Madeira and Azores. That's what the american generals tried to explain to our own, in the 50s, when we joined NATO. But our's thought that two tank divisions stationed in the Pyrenees would be enough to stop the Red Army The problem is after the invasion. The portuguese people would never, EVER accept Portugal as a province of Spain. Its in our blood. Even today, the idea of an united Iberia isn't supported by almost anyone in here.

[fantassin]

And it only took SEVEN years and THREE countries to achieve that while it was only a secondary front for Napoleon...

And then, the French came back less than twenty years latter to help restaure the Spanish monarchy...

[Benny]

Yosi - The war of the Oranges (1801) showed that Spain alone had a very limited diplomatic and military (due to lack of an adequate logistic system, professional armies and effective military leadership) ability to wage war on foreign ground. Spain was simply no longer the european power that it thought it was. Facing Spain alone, Portugal lost Olivença, but it was not the national disaster that one could expect from the Spanish threat. However, I agree that things could be very different when viewed on the light of the XX century military doctrine, but that's a different history. I was referring only to the napoleonic period. Esdaille criticizes the behaviour of the Spainsh Juntas, their regular armies, career generals, NCO's and their internal intrigues and plots. The braveness of the true guerrilleros and of the spanish people as a whole is unquestionable. No other people in Europe (except the Russian) was more stoic or corageous under Franch occupation than the Peninsulars.
As for Wellington, he was a very harsh (and often unjust) judge of everyone, English, Spanish or whatever nationality. I sometimes think that he respected more their French enemies than its european allies, including the King's German Legion. But to be fair, let's not forget that it was the Anglo-Portuguese army that finaly defeated the French armies in the Peninsula. Some spanish may find it hard to swallow that, but that's their shame. Willpower, patriotism, religious faith and courage aren't always enough against cannons and well disciplined armies. The French also resisted the Germans during WWII, but they surely didn't liberated themselves (wasn't yugoslavia the only country to achieve that?).

Fantassin - I also agree that the Spanish ulcer was a secondary theatre, when compared to the central europe. However, the great powers of central europe were repeatedly and sistematically beaten during most part of the Napoleonic period, and that lasted more than seven years. Only after conquering Spain and placing his brother Joseph on the throne, was Napoleon forced to send many of its veteran and elite regiments to Russia and, after that decisive disaster, the remaining ones to face the Austrians, Prussians and Russians menacing the French borders. After Salamanca and Vitoria, all that remained of the Grand Armee were, mostly, inexperienced (although numerous), poorly equiped armies.

[Loco]

Fantassin, nobody denied the fact that french army in the early XIX were a formidable force, they were with difference the best army of the world, it was your moment, all branches of french army were superb: the staff, officers, soldiers, logistics, administration, even the post mail service!...but you never could won in Spain, just because of the willing of spanish citizens, not of our governors. And Fantassin, the 100.000 sons of Saint Louis, or SOB like spaniards said before, had an easy trip in Spain that time because Fernando VII, a true bastard, called them to come, spanish army didn´t say a word only for eviting a civil war(that in fact we suffered 13 years later), and like Chautebriand recognized: "it´s easy when you have guerrilleros on your side", and frenchs brought tiranny to Spain like they did 15 years before. You can compare spanish in 1823 with frenchs in 1940, there was a heroic resistance, very silent and secret

Mr.Benny, I know Portugal and portugueses at least as much as portugueses think they know spanish, and I know the role Spain and spanish plays in portugues historical conscience. Well, I feel nothing except a slight simpathy and a slight indifference towards Portugal, the same that many spanish that live far from Portugal, and that means I can judge our relations with cold mind, I know that talking with portugueses as a spanish means that the person I have in front of me has some reticence that he´s willing to show. I care nothing about the opinion that Wellington had about spaniards and our business, it´s enough for me that a pig like Fernando VII concecorated him. The war began bloodly in Spain because spanish, we the people, not our government nor your government nor your people, rebelled agaisnt frenchs and they couldn´t defeat us. It´s easy to critize the organization of a country when this country was given without a shot to Napoleon and all our government and our administration was beheaded. Talking about the disorganization of Juntas I insist it´s very easy, remember that frenchs didn´t invade Spain by force, Carlos IV opened the door to them peacefully in 1807 for preparing the war agaisnt your country, spaniards didn´t have wire TV or internet 2 centuries ago, they didn´t realized that frenchs were invading our country as a conquered one and that they planned to own the 4 catalunian provinces as french departments. The sublevation began only when spaniards saw with their own eyes that spanish monarchs were sent to France, but it was too late then, frenchs had appropiated all resources of power, spanish had nothing to communicating between them. The Juntas were born spontaneusly, the first in Asturias, the first spanish kingdom, to asume an authority that didn´t exist. What it was a big triumph, organizating a true resistance in spite of frenchs I see is considered by english as an anarchy and a plot of corrupt powers.
Wellington can´t complain about spaniards, only shut his damn mouth, at the same time he was fighting near spanish he was destroying our shipyards in the cities controlled by spanish. Talking about disorganization in the mouth of british it doesn´t sound genuine. Wellington after three or four years of war had to fill his english regiments with spanish recruits because he couldn´t recruit enough men at home, as if they were fighting in other places than in Spain. John Moore, in a typical english disaster described as an heroic retreat, was defeated because he simply didn´t face the french army and he prefered to fly away in the height of the winter through a route of more than 600km under the snow, his soldiers were remembered in the Leon region not only worst than the frenchs but as the worst calamity in that region in centuries, his army even abandoned near Leon the civil contingent of english(sons, babies, wifes and girl friends) that followed his army nude and hungry in december of 1808, is this british organization and the willing of fighting frenchs?

If you portugueses and british like to live in your life of fantasy, well, you´re free to do it, but don´t tell lies about the war agaisnt Napoleon. We suffered the most of KIA and we did the most french KIA. Last battle in spanish soil was in San Marcial, the most allied soldiers were spanish. Talking about english and portugueses as the main force that defeated Napoleon is as ridiculous and petulant as talking of british as the main force fighting against Hitler. Even I don´t accept to compare spanish with russians, Russia has thousands of kilometers ro retreat waiting for a better moment, Napoleon wasn´t expelled from Moscow by russian but by the cold and the hunger, frenchs were in Russia only 6 months, but they were in Spain more than 5 years, and of course died more frenchs in Spain than in Russia.